Rust

stdin

The stdin function returns an instance of [std::io::Stdin](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/io/struct.Stdin.html), which is a type that represents a handle to the standard input for your terminal.

Functions

An associated function is a function that’s implemented on a type.

You’ll find a new function on many types because it’s a common name for a function that makes a new value of some kind.

Variables

In Rust, variables are immutable by default, meaning once we give the variable a value, the value won’t change. Unlike Go, variables should be initialized before usage:

fn main() {
    let x: u64;
    println!("{x}");
}

used binding `x` isn't initialized

Like immutable variables, constants are values that are bound to a name and are not allowed to change, but there are a few differences between constants and variables.

First, you aren’t allowed to use mut with constants. Constants aren’t just immutable by default—they’re always immutable. You declare constants using the const keyword instead of the let keyword, and the type of the value must be annotated.

Constants can be declared in any scope, including the global scope, which makes them useful for values that many parts of code need to know about.

The last difference is that constants may be set only to a constant expression, not the result of a value that could only be computed at runtime.

const PARHAM_AGE: u64 = 10;
const ELAHE_AGE: u64 = PARHAM_AGE - 10;

Rust’s naming convention for constants is to use all uppercase, with underscores between words.

Naming hard-coded values used throughout your program as constants is useful in conveying the meaning of that value to future maintainers of the code. It also helps to have only one place in your code you would need to change if the hard-coded value needed to be updated in the future.

You can declare a new variable with the same name as a previous variable. Rustaceans say that the first variable is shadowed by the second, which means that the second variable is what the compiler will see when you use the name of the variable.

Shadowing is different from marking a variable as mut because we’ll get a compile-time error if we accidentally try to reassign to this variable without using the let keyword. By using let, we can perform a few transformations on a value but have the variable be immutable after those transformations have been completed.

The other difference between mut and shadowing is that because we’re effectively creating a new variable when we use the let keyword again, we can change the type of the value but reuse the same name.

A scalar type represents a single value. Rust has four primary scalar types: integers, floating-point numbers, Booleans, and characters.

An integer is a number without a fractional component. Signed numbers are stored using two’s complement representation.

Length	Signed	Unsigned
8-bit	i8	u8
16-bit	i16	u16
32-bit	i32	u32
64-bit	i64	u64
128-bit	i128	u128
arch	isize	usize

Additionally, the isize and usize types depend on the architecture of the computer your program is running on, which is denoted in the table as “arch”: 64 bits if you’re on a 64-bit architecture and 32 bits if you’re on a 32-bit architecture.

You can write integer literals in any of the forms shown in the following table. Note that number literals that can be multiple numeric types allow a type suffix, such as 57u8, to designate the type. Number literals can also use _ as a visual separator to make the number easier to read, such as 1_000, which will have the same value as if you had specified 1000.

Number literals	Example
Decimal	98_222
Hex	0xff
Octal	0o77
Binary	0b1111_0000
Byte (u8 only)	b’A’

Note

💡 Let’s say you have a variable of type u8 that can hold values between 0 and 255. If you try to change the variable to a value outside that range, such as 256, integer overflow will occur, which can result in one of two behaviors. When you’re compiling in debug mode, Rust includes checks for integer overflow that cause your program to panic at runtime if this behavior occurs. Rust uses the term panicking when a program exits with an error; we’ll discuss panics in more depth in the “Unrecoverable Errors with panic!” section.

Rust also has two primitive types for floating-point numbers, which are numbers with decimal points. Rust’s floating-point types are f32 and f64, which are 32 bits and 64 bits in size, respectively. The default type is f64 because on modern CPUs, it’s roughly the same speed as f32 but is capable of more precision. All floating-point types are signed.

Floating-point numbers are represented according to the IEEE-754 standard. The f32 type is a single-precision float, and f64 has double precision.

fn main() {
    let x = 2.0; // f64
    let y: f32 = 3.0; // f32
}

Rust supports the basic mathematical operations you’d expect for all the number types: addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and remainder. Integer division truncates toward zero to the nearest integer.

Rust’s char type is the language’s most primitive alphabetic type. Here are some examples of declaring char values:

fn main() {
    let c = 'z';
    let z: char = 'ℤ'; // with explicit type annotation
    let heart_eyed_cat = '😻';
}

Note that we specify char literals with single quotes, as opposed to string literals, which use double quotes. Rust’s char type is four bytes in size and represents a Unicode Scalar Value, which means it can represent a lot more than just ASCII.

Compound types

Compound types can group multiple values into one type. Rust has two primitive compound types: tuples and arrays.

A tuple is a general way of grouping together a number of values with a variety of types into one compound type. Tuples have a fixed length: once declared, they cannot grow or shrink in size.

We create a tuple by writing a comma-separated list of values inside parentheses. Each position in the tuple has a type, and the types of the different values in the tuple don’t have to be the same.

fn main() {
    let tup: (i32, f64, u8) = (500, 6.4, 1);
}

To get the individual values out of a tuple, we can use pattern matching to destructure a tuple value, like this:

fn main() {
    let tup = (500, 6.4, 1);

    let (x, y, z) = tup;

    println!("The value of y is: {y}");
}

We can also access a tuple element directly by using a period (.) followed by the index of the value we want to access. For example:

fn main() {
    let x: (i32, f64, u8) = (500, 6.4, 1);

    let five_hundred = x.0;

    let six_point_four = x.1;

    let one = x.2;
}

This program creates the tuple x and then accesses each element of the tuple using their respective indices. As with most programming languages, the first index in a tuple is 0.

The tuple without any values has a special name, unit. This value and its corresponding type are both written () and represent an empty value or an empty return type. Expressions implicitly return the unit value if they don’t return any other value.

Another way to have a collection of multiple values is with an array. Unlike a tuple, every element of an array must have the same type. Unlike arrays in some other languages, arrays in Rust have a fixed length.

We write the values in an array as a comma-separated list inside square brackets:

fn main() {
    let a = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
}

Arrays are useful when you want your data allocated on the stack rather than the heap.

References

The & indicates that this argument is a reference, which gives you a way to let multiple parts of your code access one piece of data without needing to copy that data into memory multiple times.

Strings

The trim method on a String instance will eliminate any whitespace at the beginning and end.

Format

println!("You guessed: {guess}");

The {} set of curly brackets is a placeholder: think of {} as little crab pincers that hold a value in place. When printing the value of a variable, the variable name can go inside the curly brackets.

When printing the result of evaluating an expression, place empty curly brackets in the format string, then follow the format string with a comma-separated list of expressions to print in each empty curly bracket placeholder in the same order.

String

The trim method on a String instance will eliminate any whitespace at the beginning and end.

use

If a type you want to use isn’t in the prelude, you have to bring that type into scope explicitly with a use statement.

Prelude 🗞️

By default, Rust has a set of items defined in the standard library that it brings into the scope of every program. This set is called the prelude.

Random

Rust doesn’t yet include random number functionality in its standard library. However, the Rust team does provide a [rand crate](https://crates.io/crates/rand) with said functionality. The rand crate is a library crate, which contains code that is intended to be used in other programs and can’t be executed on its own.

Compare

match guess.cmp(&secret_number) {
 Ordering::Less => println!("Too small!"),
 Ordering::Greater => println!("Too big!"),
 Ordering::Equal => println!("You win!"),
}

The Ordering type is another enum and has the variants Less, Greater, and Equal. These are the three outcomes that are possible when you compare two values.

The cmp method compares two values and can be called on anything that can be compared.

Cargo 📦

Cargo understands Semantic Versioning (sometimes called SemVer), which is a standard for writing version numbers. The specifier 0.8.5 is actually shorthand for ^0.8.5, which means any version that is at least 0.8.5 but below 0.9.0.

Upgrade

When you do want to update a crate, Cargo provides the command update, which will ignore the Cargo.lock file and figure out all the latest versions that fit your specifications in Cargo.toml. Cargo will then write those versions to the Cargo.lock file

Building for Release 🚀

When your project is finally ready for release, you can use cargo build --release to compile it with optimizations. This command will create an executable in target/release instead of target/debug. The optimizations make your Rust code run faster, but turning them on lengthens the time it takes for your program to compile.

Documentation

Another neat feature of Cargo is that running the cargo doc --open command will build documentation provided by all your dependencies locally and open it in your browser.

Configuration 🔧

Personally, I love to have all configuration well-defined and structured 😍

https://github.com/mehcode/config-rs

config - Rust

https://github.com/SergioBenitez/Figment

figment - Rust

Standard CLI 💾

Having multiple sub-command for things like migrations, provide ground data, etc.

https://github.com/clap-rs/clap

clap - Rust

HTTP Frameworks 🌐

There are multiple frameworks in Rust:

Rocket 🚀

https://github.com/tokio-rs/axum

https://github.com/actix/actix

actix - Rust

Rocket 🚀

https://github.com/SergioBenitez/Rocket

rocket - Rust

Lifecycle

Rocket’s main task is to listen for incoming web requests, dispatch the request to the application code, and return a response to the client. We call the process that goes from request to response the “lifecycle”. We summarize the lifecycle as the following sequence of steps:

1. Routing

   Rocket parses an incoming HTTP request into native structures that your code operates on indirectly. Rocket determines which request handler to invoke by matching against route attributes declared in your application.

2. Validation

   Rocket validates the incoming request against types and guards present in the matched route. If validation fails, Rocket forwards the request to the next matching route or calls an error handler.

3. Processing

   The request handler associated with the route is invoked with validated arguments. This is the main business logic of an application. Processing completes by returning a Response.

4. Response

   The returned Response is processed. Rocket generates the appropriate HTTP response and sends it to the client. This completes the lifecycle. Rocket continues listening for requests, restarting the lifecycle for each incoming request.

Rocket applications are centered around routes and handlers. A route is a combination of:

• A set of parameters to match an incoming request against.
• A handler to process the request and return a response.

A handler is simply a function that takes an arbitrary number of arguments and returns any arbitrary type.

State

Many web applications have a need to maintain state. This can be as simple as maintaining a counter for the number of visits, or as complex as needing to access job queues and multiple databases. Rocket provides the tools to enable these kinds of interactions in a safe and simple manner.

The enabling feature for maintaining state is managed state. Managed state, as the name implies, is state that Rocket manages for your application. The state is managed on a per-type basis: Rocket will manage at most one value of a given type.

The process for using managed state is simple:

1. Call manage on the Rocket instance corresponding to your application with the initial value of the state.
2. Add a &State<T> type to any request handler, where T is the type of the value passed into manage.

Note

💡 Note: All managed state must be thread-safe. Because Rocket automatically parallelizes your application, handlers can concurrently access managed state. As a result, managed state must be thread-safe. Thanks to Rust, this condition is checked at compile-time by ensuring that the type of values you store in managed state implement Send + Sync.

Adding State

To instruct Rocket to manage state for your application, call the [manage](https://api.rocket.rs/v0.5/rocket/struct.Rocket.html#method.manage) method on an instance of Rocket. For example, to ask Rocket to manage a HitCount structure with an internal AtomicUsize with an initial value of 0, we can write the following:

use std::sync::atomic::AtomicUsize;

struct HitCount {
    count: AtomicUsize
}

rocket::build().manage(HitCount { count: AtomicUsize::new(0) });

The manage method can be called any number of times, as long as each call refers to a value of a different type. For instance, to have Rocket manage both a HitCount value and a Config value, we can write:

rocket::build()
    .manage(HitCount { count: AtomicUsize::new(0) })
    .manage(Config::from(user_input));

Phases

A Rocket instance represents a web server and its state. It progresses through three statically-enforced phases: build, ignite, orbit.

• Build: application and server configuration

  This phase enables:

  • setting configuration options

  • mounting/registering routes/catchers

  • managing state

  • attaching fairings

    This is the only phase in which an instance can be modified. To finalize changes, an instance is ignited via [Rocket::ignite()](https://api.rocket.rs/v0.5/rocket/struct.Rocket.html#method.ignite), progressing it into the ignite phase, or directly launched into orbit with [Rocket::launch()](https://api.rocket.rs/v0.5/rocket/struct.Rocket.html#method.launch) which progress the instance through ignite into orbit.

• Ignite: verification and finalization of configuration

  An instance in the [Ignite](https://api.rocket.rs/v0.5/rocket/enum.Ignite.html) phase is in its final configuration, available via [Rocket::config()](https://api.rocket.rs/v0.5/rocket/struct.Rocket.html#method.config). Barring user-supplied interior mutation, application state is guaranteed to remain unchanged beyond this point. An instance in the ignite phase can be launched into orbit to serve requests via [Rocket::launch()](https://api.rocket.rs/v0.5/rocket/struct.Rocket.html#method.launch).

• Orbit: a running web server

  An instance in the [Orbit](https://api.rocket.rs/v0.5/rocket/enum.Orbit.html) phase represents a running application, actively serving requests.